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Medieval Army Lists

Scots Isles and Highlands (DBA 128)
(1050-1493 AD)

by Roy Beers

"It is no joy to be without Clan Donald;
it is no strength to be without them"

This army list begins during the reign of Macbeth and actually covers several quite different army types, there being no such thing as a "generic" Highland army during the turbulent medieval era. One of Macbeth's great achievements was the agreement of an alliance with his Norse neighbours (by the 11th century much of the North, West and Isles were fully under Norwegian or Danish sway), and in the Highlands and Isles the inter-relation between Scandinavian and Celt underpins much of military history in this era. Apart from the redoubtable Somerled, we have, for example, Leod, son of Olaf the Black of Norway, progenitor of the powerful Clan MacLeod (pronounce "loud") - forged during the desperate struggle for possession of the Hebrides in the 13th century.

A little before this list begins the Isles contingents present on the losing side at the Battle of Contarf, 1014, were probably largely similar in appearance to other Norse - although even at this stage they may have started to adopt some Celtic dress. The area of the future Lordship was known to the Norse as the Sudrejars (rendered as the Sudreys in chronicles) and included the important southern redoubt of Viking influence on Man (today's Isle of Man).

So it is not surprising that armies in this period have a distinctly Norse flavour to them - whether in the hard-bitten professional Galloglaich mercenaries, with their Norse-style conical helms, or in the raiding fleets of nyvaig galleys based on the Vikings' longships. The blazon of the Lord of the Isles was the Galley of Lorne, as an obvious symbol of maritime power (in an area where effective transport and communication was by sea, rather than land), and from warfleets of these galleys the Islesmen would descend on their foes or victims with much the same suddenness and ferocity as the Vikings, led by the professional soldiers who would become famous in Ireland as the galloglaich (foreign young warriors) These, or their more land-centered equivalents, are the Bd elements in the list: they can also, of course, be Norse allies on occasion - for example the invasion force which landed at Renfrew on the Clyde in the 1160's included a large contingent of Dublin Vikings.

The Galloglaich style of warfare

The MacAllisters of the Kintyre peninsula were hereditary Galloglaich in the classic mould, and are frequently mentioned because their territory was geographically closest to Antrim in northern Ireland - to the point where the warriors would rush for their galleys when the smoke from signal fires on the Irish coast summoned them to "seasonal employment". Like many others, for example the Galloglaich families of Islay, they would turn their hand to fishing and casual piracy when not on regular campaign, Although the Norse element in Isles language and custom effectively disappeared within its host Celtic culture, particularly after the rise of Somerled, it sometimes remained in Gaelic names - for example Somerled's son Dhugall translates as "dark foriegner", while the name given to the Norwegians; Fingall, white foreigner, means the Danes. Most obviously the Norse element remained in arms, armour and fighting style. The Galloglaich weapon of preference was the two-handed Lochlann axe, although from perhaps the 14th century the two-handed sword (cleadhamor - great cleaver) became increasingly popular.

The basic unit of a Galloglaich company of around 100 - 120 men was the Spar, a soldier and his two attendants, and of course this meant the well-equipped Galloglass could arm and equip himself for any given tactical situation - sending for his mail coat, or his bow, as the circumstances demanded. Although the mail coat was a standard feature in Irish battles (and is shown worn over the ahketon in some Irish stone effigies of Galloglaich) it seems most of the time these warriors fought only in the ahketon, which was in any case a highly effective piece of armour. Irish as well as West Highland stone effigies most usually show the warrior in ahketon.

In at least one Scottish effigy a 14th century stylr heater shield indicates a mainstream European influence, at least on the Highlands, probably from the English - Scottish warfare in the area during the War of Independence. The ahketon was made of wool-padded Irish linen but was then also often pitched and faced in, for example, deer hide. Since most warfare evolved around sea fighting, raids and skirmishes it's easy to see why the mail coat was often regarded as an "optional extra". Full mail was probably worn when the enemy was likely to be heavily-armoured, for example as with the Anglo-Normans in Ireland, but the conical helm and mail coif were standard equipment Effigies in the West Highlands covering 13th to 15th century Galloglaich-style warriors also show that, besides a long single-handed sword worn on a belt, another important weapon (again as with the Vikings ) was the spear, and it's quite likely smaller axes, javelins and bows were also used as ancillary equipment. The ahketon was fastened by solid pewter buttons and its arms were fastened across with straps (allowing the shirt to be seen on the inside of the arms) like cricket pads.

In the 12th century a well-equipped Celto-Norse warrior would have been armed much as the Scandinavian types depicted in the famous Lewis chess set, with conical nasal helm and, possibly, long squared-off kite shield. Both in the Isles and Highlands round leather targets would have been the standard defense of the clan warrior (although poorer caterans may have had none) and although it is sometimes said targes post-date heater shields, there are effigy stones in Knapdale, Argyll, which conveniently show targes decorated with cruciform patterns, in the same frame as other "typical" medieval West Highland equipment. Most effigies show no shield, and of course Galloglaich in particular relied on two-handed weapons, so either targes were restricted to Highland clansmen or were worn by a strap on the back, Viking style, if used at all.

In Ireland, the Galloglaich had a fearsome reputation in combat, often preferring obliteration to retreat or surrender. In the early 14th century Robert the Bruce landed at Carrickfergus in Antrim with 800 Hebridean galloglaich and was immediately "bought off" from a raid on Wales - perhaps showing how these warriors' reputation had preceded them- and in fact they remained a significant factor in Isles, Highland and (primarily) Irish warfare well into the 16th century.

Archery

One account of the 15th century siege of Roxburgh mentions Islesmen fighting "in the old Highland manner" with "axe, bow and haubergeon", which could imply many or all carried both axes and bows. Bows could have been locally made, the whole mainland region being far more heavily forested in the medieval era, and could also have been imported from the Norse countries which inspired the tradition.

However while many Islesmen might be bow-armed in a typical host, the Bw elements in the list are quite accurate. Numerous battle accounts make it clear that discrete bodies of "archers" were formed, quite possibly from the best bowmen in the ranks - maybe even from particular families and areas -often in the hope of using flank fire to demoralise the main enemy body: the sudden accession of the bow as an important element in warfare is clearly another Viking influence. Bowmen may also be represented as crack marksmen in the Psiloi.

Bows generally remained a highly important element of Highland warfare right into the 17th century, only gradually being supplanted by firearms. They were primarily hunting weapons adapted for war, not just a "commoner's weapon," and clan histories and motifs make much of individual archers' prowess.

Highland warfare

On several occasions, from the 12th to the 15th centuries, Isles hosts would ally with mainland clans in pan-Gaelic enterprises, one particularly regular bone of contention being control of the wealthy Earldom of Ross. It was such a confederate Isles-Highland host which embarked on the blood-drenched Harlaw campaign of 1411. This saw the Highlanders smashing Clan MacKay, seizing Dingwall then Inverness (after an epic battle on the town bridge with a solitary hero) before threatening Aberdeen. Perhaps 10,000 Gaels fought the Lowland-Norman style army mustered by the burgesses of Aberdeen and its surrounding districts. Their main force was some 2,000 armoured horse, and after a sanguinary slaughter lasting all day the battle of Harlaw, known as Red Harlaw, ended as a Pyrrhic victory for the Gaels. Rather like Lee at Antietam in the US civil war, both sides could claim a victory, but the invader, much damaged, marched home.

At Harlaw, incidentally, monumental effigies make it clear that some of the Highlanders' Normano-Scottish enemies were using two-handed swords, after beginning the battle on horseback. (This could be one clear example of why the new DBA should have a Dismount rule!) By this period the "claymore" was also becoming a popular weapon for Highland warriors of a certain stature and rank.

It is often said that the Isles were a military backwater because it is clear that equipment of antique style (conical helm etc) was still being worn in the 15th century, but I think it is more likely the warriors had adopted a regional style they were unwilling to change: funerary effigies show a remarkable continuity of equipment style over perhaps two centuries, while the founder of a church in the renaissance era depicted himself in similar Nordic antique style, as a knight on horseback. Chieftains' helms, in particular, would wear eagle or other feathers as a badge of rank and identification; all ranks would wear clan field signs like a sprig of rushes, bog myrtle, etc, as ready identification.

I F Grant's book Angus Og -- Lord of the Isles shows a warrior in Hebridean equipment who is also wearing mail leggings, and these are certainly possible, as are the armour leg and arm braces suggested in another effigy of the 14th-15th centuries: no doubt if you knew your enemy was well-armoured you would wear your own heaviest gear. The overwhelming majority of Isles and Highlanders went barelegged, however, and very often barefoot.

Fighting alongside the Hebrideans in their conical helms and ahketons in a mainland encounter would have been Highland clan warriors - the Wb option in the rules. These in particular would have worn a precursor of the Highland plaid, but as a cloak and not belted (which only became usual from the early 16th century) over an Irish leine shirt. Clans influenced by Irish cousin clans might wear breacon shorts, particularly in winter, and also a jacket of cowhide or other leather. Most Gaels would go barefoot, but in rough country warfare would (as in medieval Scots armies generally), make rough brogans of cowhide from freshly slaughtered animals.

For the emerging Scottish clans (and, for example, the powerful confederacy of Clan Chattan) life was often an endless round of feud, vendetta and cattle-raid. Alliances would naturally form on family-political lines, so that adherents of aspirants to the Scottish crown like Baliol, then Comyn, would naturally be opposed to those allied to the Bruce interest. The war fought in the Highlands and North-East against the English was one thing - but less publicised are the Highland "civil wars" fought amongst the clans. Besides acting as classic warband these warriors were also, on occasion, hardy mountaineers, well-versed in ambush, feigned retreat and circuitous marches by secret tracks and fords (and see the Scots Medieval Variants options for how to reflect this). Battles in mountain passes and at fords were common, and are remembered in Gaelic place names.

In the northern territories of Caithness and Sutherland, where the Norse influence lingered longest, it seems likely the style of warfare may have been more typically Scandinavian - and the Scots may have fielded cavalry on southern lines.

It could be that a dedicated warband was superior in general fieldcraft and combat to a general rising of the clan, but accounts throughout the period frequently describe lengthy, closely-fought and bloody battles - fought over anything from a territorial claim to an insult, real or imagined, to which proportion of another clan's stolen cattle should be appropriated in order for them to be allowed to continue unmolestedP>

As a very good general guide to how the Highlanders dressed see the Scottish medieval clothing section at the Clothing of the Ancient Celts page.

Standards would of course include the Galley of Lorne blazon for Isles hosts but could also have featured some of the animal motifs which found their way into later heraldry; for example Clan Chattan (confederacy) took its name from its patron saint, St Catan - but had as its motif the head of a Highland wild cat. It is a visual pun to be found throughout Scots heraldry. Other important symbols included the salmon (also important in Pictish times) which denoted royalty and tenacity, and latterly Christianity; and the bull - there were perhaps many others.

The MacLeans of Dunvegan on Skye had a Faerie Flag which could summon supernatural aid, when raised to save the clan - but could only be raised three times (a good prompt for a HoTT list!) It was reputedly flown in a 15th century naval encounter.

The Lordship of the Isles

Although the list spans warfare throughout all of the Isles and Highlands the core ingredient is the Gaelic Isles "kingdom" of the West Highlands and Isles. The Norse-Celtic warlord Somerled fought King Godred of Man in a naval battle on Epiphany in winter - a drawn encounter - after which the Godred and Somerled agreed to divide the old Viking Isles empire between them. Man remained Viking, but Somerled and his descendants ruled the Isles and, increasingly, the West Highlands. At various times they and their kin also commanded significant interests in the North of Ireland, and meanwhile important Galloglaich like the McDonnells were brought in as mercenaries by Irish chiefs and settled on gifted land in what amounted to permanent military colonies.

From perhaps the 13th century castlebuilding in the Isles and Highlands to secure clan interests began in earnest, most frequently of strong stone keeps commanding headlands or sealochs, which were the most common approaches used by an attacker. Siege warfare is generally rare and inconclusive (although with some daring escalades in the War of Independence period) but on occasion a stronghold could be taken by storm, as with Duart Castle by Angus Og in the 15th century.

The often tense relationship between the now southern-based Scottish crown, run by a Normano-Scots aristrocracy, and the Gaelic Isles and Highlands, underpins the whole medieval period as thoroughly as Scotland's ongoing wars with England.

In 1314 the warfleet of the Isles mustered at Dunyveg ("fort of the Nyvaigs) on Islay under Angus Og for the start of a sea and land journey to join Bruce at Bannockburn - where the Isles and Argyll men played a decisive part in the victory; yet on later occasions Lords of the Isles could be technically allied to England (as late as Henry VIII) as the nature of the power politics with the Lowland throne ebbed and flowed.

As early as the 12rh century Somerled, founder of the Lordship of the Isles and progenitor of the mighty Clan Donald had ruled effectively as an independent monarch over a huge islands kingdom, and also controlled the West Highlands, Kintyre and into Ross. John Marsden suggests he fought and won a battle against an Earl of Menteith in Morvern, securing for a time his territorial stake in the mainland Highlands.

For a while there was an uneasy peace between the throne and the Isles , but Somerled must have known his independence would soon be tested when "King" Fergus of Galloway was invaded and defeated by a royal army - his southern Celtic "kingdom" of wild Galwegians had been useful as a buffer state against the English, but the time had come to assert authority. Fergus, in traditional Celtic fashion, retired to a monastery. It is possible Somerled was personally present when the Islesmen and the Galwegians had fought in fractious and uncoordinated union alongside David I's Normano-Lowland army at Northallerton in 1138, and it could be that the tension between the crown and its nominally loyal Celtic "kingdoms" increased after that debacle.

Somerled and Malcolm IV made a show of peace if not reconciliation at a Christmas feast, but it did not last. Provoked, perhaps, to precipitate action by the crown's claims on his authority, Somerled mustered an invasion force drawn from all of his own domain and also from the Dublin Norse, and sailed up the River Clyde to Renfrew. His intention was perhaps both to give his adherents and allies a profitable excursion and also to persuade King Malcolm to "back off." There, as the fleet disembarked, he was violently attacked in what seems to have been a pre-emptive strike (John Marsden suggests by mailed Normano-Scottish knights) and killed at thr onset of battle. His host was pursued along the river bank in bloody rout, many failing to reach their ships.

The great warlord's sons inherited his domain and a complex Celto-Norse governmental system developed, with lands being deliberately apportioned so that no single clan or faction could control a single large area of territory: unfortunately the same system, guaranteeing endless dynastic inheritance disputes about who owned what, paved the way for incessant clan warfare in the centuries to follow. However from the archaeological remains of the Lordship of the Isles' base at Finlaggan in Islay (with its Council Isle and slate-roofed buildings)it is clear that this unique Gaelic realm was in close contact with Europe and particularly with the Celtic Irish church. Power was wielded by the Lordship through clan chiefs but public acclamation at the council by one's peers was essential - in Scottish history generally, following Dalriadic and other ancient tradition, sovereignty rested ultimately on the consent of the subjects. The inauguration of the Lord of the Isles followed classic Dalriadic and Irish kingship ceremonies, with the clergy fulfilling the supervisory role once carried out by Druids.

The DBA list ends in 1493 as this was the year when the Lordship of the Isles was formally abolished by James IV (ironically the last Gaelic speaking Scottish monarch)at Dunstaffnage Casle in Argyll - finally confirming on the one-time Celto-Norse Isles "kingdom" the authority of the Scottish crown.

The earlier part of the same century had seen huge and bloody raids and punitive expeditions, as the later Lords vied for supremacy with the crown's feudal appointees in Ross, Perthshire or Moray: internal strife paved the way for the end. With the power base splintered the Galloglaich could no longer muster in numbers, as before, and the end of their distinctive type of warfare was further hastened by the development of pike and musket tactics by the English in their Irish wars.

Naval Warfare

There were clan naval battles too. As in Viking naval warfare, ships manouevred as floating platforms into a combative log-jam, with the aim of invading the enemy's decks - sinking ships wasn't the objective. In one encounter a flotilla of galleys was able to lure enemy ships under the lee of a cliff - where a shore party had been piling up mounds of boulders: these were then hurled on to the enemy decks from above with devastating effect: a classic example of wily Gaelic fieldcraft.

The Galleys of the Islesmen and West Highlanders were, as outlined above, based on Norse designs, but were smaller, typically with a crew of less than . They substituted a stern rudden for the Viking steering oar in order to be more maneouvrable in coastal waters. To these vessels were added larger and more imposing galleys in later medieval times, but the big advantage of the little ships was that they could be easily carried up a beach and even carried or rolled on logs overland to be relaunched in an inland loch

Scots Isles and Highlands List

Any list combination produces a powerful army against any of the historical opponents opponents, with the prospect of Littorals and coastal landings from withheld elements in the new DBA rules. The Bd are best represented as Bd (F) to reflect their typical equipment and raiding style of warfare.

Enemies

These include the Scots Common army, which if replicating the forces of, say, the Regent Albany in the Highlands, should be more cavalry orientated - and which will also include its own allied Highland clansmen.

Another regular enemy is the Norse - whether Norse Irish, Vikings (notably those of Godred of Man) or Early Medieval Scandinavian. A few years before the repulse by a Scots army of a Norwegian incursion at Largs on the south-west coast, the Duke of Sutherland defeated a Norse army at Helmsdale in the North - killing their general and driving the army off with great slaughter. These were the last Norse attempts to retain direct control over Scotland, although control of the Jarldom of Orkney (which was never Celticised) lasted still longer.

Another opponent is the pre-Feudal Scots army of Macbeth's era, where the Bd elements might be actual Norse acting in concert with clansmen; or alternatively Gaelic-style thanes heavily influenced by Norse armour and fighting style.

Figures

Mine are Feudal Castings, which have everything you need for the complete period, besides a full range for the War of Independence and the 15th century; earlier period Vikings, Anglo-Normans, etc. Its web link is listed in the Miniatures suppliers section of Bazaar.

No other manufacturer I know of makes acceptable Hebridean galloglaich, but in 25mm there are excellent Scottish figures generally from, eg, Foundry and Gripping Beast.

As a final note, if you are using Highland cattle as decoration or in a Cattle Raid game (see Variant rules) the livestock should be brown or black, as the cute "ginger" ones you see on Scottish postcards are a product of selective breeding in the 19th century! Similarly, while the Highland war bagpipes were well established by, perhaps, the 14th century, these would have bone pipes and chanters, not black ones like today's, and the bag would be treated goatskin or similar.

Further Reading

There are several good books on the Lordship of the Isles, but not many which deal with military aspects in any great detail; John Marsden's Somerled and the Emergence of Gaelic Scotland (Tuckwell Press) is the only dedicated biography of the great Celto-Norse war leader, and is scholarly without being dull: very highly recommended.

WRG's Armies of the Middle Ages (west European volume) has some useful general material on Irish galloglaich and Irish warfare generally, with some notes on Highland warriors. Sir Charles Oman's Art of Warfare in the Middle Ages has a colourful account of Northallerton, 1138, where a pan-Scottish army came to grief against a more unified army of northern English knights and levies.

Ronald Wilson's The Lords of the Isles traces the whole history of the Isles and West Highlands from Dalriadic times and has a good account of the medieval history of the Lordship.

C MacNamee's The Wars of the Bruces neatly illustrates the Highland and Irish dimensions to what is usually thought of as a mainly Lowland war.

I E Grant's Angus Og of the Isles (1963) is a dramatized account of the tempestuous career of the 15th century Angus Og (murdered by his Irish harper!) with well-observed accounts of various battles; the same author wrote a book The Lordship of the Isles, which I haven't yet acquired.

For a look at West Highland warrior effigies click on the church on the interactive map of the Kilmartin Valley.

And for an excellent introduction to Scottish Highland history, and a reprint of a 1764 work on The Conflicts of the Clans, look at the Clan History section of the Electric Scotland sit. This site also has a downloadable clan map of Scotland which can be used as the basis for campaign games.

My Albanach! entry in the Variant Armies section provides some variant list ideas for irregular warfare in the 14th to 16th century which can link to the list army for, eg, 14th and 15th century mainland warfare and also naval raids; and there are rules ideas for Isles and Highland warfare in Medieval Scots variant rules.

And Kevin Boylan's Medieval Irish army notes provide more information on galloglaich and their context in Irish warfare.

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Thanks to Roy Beers for this extensive essay. Comments, questions or suggested additions can be sent to Chris Brantley, brant@erols.com.

Last Updated: March 4, 2001